"western"> , -, , ("") , "", , , , -- " ".

( ) "-", " " , , .

-, , "" ( , "") , .

, , , , . , , -- .

( "" , , , ) , , , .., .

" " -- , , , . , , , .

, , , . , .

, , , " ":

" , , , ".

- , : , : " "? , ?

" , ... , , , ".

, :

", ... , , ... !"

, , ( ). ( ) , ( ), .

6.2 :

, " " , . " ", . , , , , .. "" .

, , "" "". ( ), -- , . -- -- . 1993 . ( ISO/IEK IS 9945-2:1993), "" POSIX.2.

, Unix, BSD, GNU . bash GNU Tools, . GNU Tools , Linux, , , .

() , , , , , , , , , , , , , ( ), .

6.3

: (""), , , (, ), . -- ( exit), . ( ) "" () (, ; . ).

$ ls
!                     k7m-104.old                tmp.sh
EPIA_Manual_v1.0.pdf  k7m-104.pdf                wget-log
[0-11-9].jpg          words-to-avoid.ru.html.1   army_engl.txt
names                 words-to-avoid.ru.html.2   dengi.rar
opensource.mit.edu    www.computerra.ru          econ.pdf
ruspunk.swf           www.ctc.msiu.ru            firewalls.tar
school                tmp                        gosorgan.amursk.ru
tmp.1                 www.oreilly.com            j463_k7m.pdf
tmp.html
$_
. 1


" " . 1 ( , -- . ls ( LiSt -- ), , .

$ ls -l
total 3707
drwxr-xr-x   2 maksim   None         4096 Oct 29  2001 !
-rw-r--r--   1 maksim   None        19743 Nov  5 00:08 EPIA_Manual_v1.0.pdf
-rw-r--r--   1 maksim   None           39 May 27  2002 [0-11-9].jpg
-rw-r--r--   1 maksim   None       666120 Nov 12  2001 army_engl.txt
-rw-r--r--   1 maksim   None        12402 Oct 11  2001 dengi.rar
-rw-r--r--   1 maksim   None       101873 Oct  8  2001 econ.pdf
-rw-r--r--   1 maksim   None      2129920 Aug 15  2001 firewalls.tar
drwxr-xr-x   2 maksim   None            0 Nov 10 08:48 gosorgan.amursk.ru
-rw-r--r--   1 maksim   None       768086 May  1  2002 j463_k7m.pdf
-rw-r--r--   1 maksim   None       340016 May  1  2002 k7m-104.old
-rw-r--r--   1 maksim   None      2543572 Dec  9  2001 k7m-104.pdf
-rw-r--r--   1 maksim   None           23 Nov 28 03:44 names
drwxr-xr-x   5 maksim   None         4096 Nov  7 07:08 opensource.mit.edu
-rw-r--r--   1 maksim   None       855480 Jun  7 17:01 ruspunk.swf
drwxr-xr-x   5 maksim   None            0 Oct 14  2001 school
-rw-r--r--   1 maksim   None        16000 Aug 25 02:24 tmp
-rw-r--r--   1 maksim   None          467 Oct 29  2001 tmp.1
-rw-r--r--   1 maksim   None        67888 Sep 26  2001 tmp.html
-rwxr-xr-x   1 maksim   None          198 Aug 23 04:48 tmp.sh
-rw-r--r--   1 maksim   None          835 Nov 27  2001 wget-log
-rw-r--r--   1 maksim   None        12698 Jun 16  2000 words-to-avoid.ru.html.1
-rw-r--r--   1 maksim   None        12698 Jun 16  2000 words-to-avoid.ru.html.2
drwxr-xr-x   6 maksim   None         4096 Sep 26  2001 www.computerra.ru
drwxr-xr-x   3 maksim   None            0 Oct  9  2001 www.ctc.msiu.ru
drwxr-xr-x  12 maksim   None         4096 Apr 26  2002 www.oreilly.com
$_

. 2

( ) : , , ls, , , -, , (. . 2). (, , ) , "", "" ?

: , ls , - , . -- , , . , , (, ls -al --color=always | less, , lls).

. (, ), (, ) " " " ", () . , , , , " ", . "" , .

$ cat








^D
$_
$ cat >names




^D
$ ls names
names
$ cat <names




$_

. 3

. 4


, . -- cat, , , (. . 3). , - - , , POSIX-.

- -- , . , < >, . . 4. cat names . , - , "" (, , ) .

"" ( "") -- .

$ cat names names >names2
$ cat <names2








$ sort <names2








$ uniq <names2








$ sort <names2 | uniq



. 5

. 5 . cat names names >names2 names2, names. sort , uniq , . , , , , .

, - ( : sort <names2 >temp ; uniq temp ; rm temp), , |, "" sort uniq , : sort <names2 | uniq temp. , , .

, , ( " "). , . 1, words-to-avoid.ru.html.1 words-to-avoid.ru.html.2, rm; , , words-to-avoid*. * ; . rm words-to-avoid.ru.html.1 words-to-avoid.ru.html.2, "" , , , .

6.4

:

, , : () (, ). , , , bc, . ( , ) .

( , ) ( ) 7 . , , , , , .

, , , . , , , (). bash ( POSIX-, .. ) ( bas ). .

6.5

, , , , "" Unix , . - [11], .

( , ); bash, . (, Microsoft Windows) bash, .

Microsoft Windows Cygwin, GNU , . , MS Windows, MS-DOS (MS Windows 95/98/Me), - MS-DOS (, NT -- MS Windows NT/00/XP, ), , Cygwin . .inputrc, :

set meta-flag on
set convert-meta off
set output-meta on

Cygwin ( ) Interix UNIX Tools for Windows, GNU, bash ( Microsoft ).

7.

-- . , , " " (), , . X-, .

( , , ) , Intel 486 , X- , - ( , ) .

, , , , . -- -- ( ) ( , ), x86- PowerPC-, "" -- X-, -- .

7.1 X Window System Xfree86

X Window System -- -- 1984 ., , -- Athena ( ) W Windowing ( ) -- . , , - , "" 1987 . X Consortium ( X Open Group, www.X.org).

X .

X, XFree86, (www.xfree86.org) 4.2 . XFree86 -- X, ( , ) x86- , , , "", , "". , "86" Intel, XFree86 . XFree86 , Microsoft Windows NT.

X , www.X.org.

7.2

, , , , .

(, ) X-. (, ) , , X-. X- ( X- , X-).

X Windows System , : X- , TCP/IP , , . , , (" "), (" "), X- ( - ).

, X-, . , , X .

, , . -- .

7.3 "" X

. 1 "" X Window -- , . : X.


X. , . . -- , . X . Zap (Control-Alt-Backspace) -- ( ), Zoom (Control-Alt-+/-) -- "" . (, GNU/Linux) Control-Alt .

, : xterm (. 2). X , . , -- , . , : , . ( ), , ( xterm) -- .

xclock (. 3). , ( ) , , . ( ) , X Toolkit. , , , . , , -- X-.

xterm ( ) , "" X . , , ( , , , -- Athena).

, ? , , " " -- . X PC. , "" .

. , X- -- . , , , -- (window manager).

7.4

X-? -- . ( , -- , "" ; , xsetroot .)

-- , . , - " " . -- Enlightenment.

"" (www.Enlightenment.org) (Carsten Haitzler, Geoff Harrison) -- 0.16.5. 2000 . "" GNOME ( ""), , "-" (Sawfish). GNOME-, - , GNOME Enlightenment .


"" (. 4). !

, -- xterm "" ( ) -- . , "" , , "" , , , . , ?

. , ( -- "") (. 5). , (Annihilate), / (Raise/Lower), / (Shade/Unshade) / (Stick/Unstick) , ! ( Enlightenment -- ), , -- .

, -- , . .

, "" . (pager), . 6 . , , , , , . ? " , , -- . Enlightenment 64 .

Enlightenment : , "", (. 7). , , , , .

: ? "" , "". Enlightenment "" (themes) .

, , Enlightenment -- ...

7.5

... . , . -- " " -- -- "" . GNOME KDE, "".

-- "" , Enlightenment .

? , . , "" , ( ) .

: , , , "", Enlightenment. -- "" -- "".

, "" ? , . , . , "" (toolkits), .

7.6 ?

WIMP , , , : ( () ) , .

1995 ., , 20 , " " " WIMP" [17, . 239-243]. (, , . -- ). :